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Read Online. View Cover. Antarctic Glaciology Guidelines for U. E-mail this page Embed book widget. What is an eBook? Why is an eBook better than a PDF? Where do I get eBook files? Overview Contents Rights Stats. National Research Council. Selection is based on ability to understand and present scientific subjects, written commitment from employing organization, and expected size of audience. NSF's Office of Legislative and Public Affairs administers this program, which has an annual application deadline several months before the austral summer season begins.
For information about applications for participation during a field season, please contact Mike England, mengland nsf. This opportunity provides field support, but no direct award of funds. The successful candidate will be well-established and working full-time in the appropriate field and will have a means of presenting his or her work to the public.
The past participants page provides information about earlier projects. The AAW program has been suspended in order to conduct a portfolio review and assess future program directions.
The support organizations are also bound by this National policy. The Government does not provide support to private expeditions, but does not discourage citizens from participating in such expeditions if they are self-sufficient and meet environmental standards.
Women and members of minority groups are encouraged to apply for participation in all aspects of the U. The f i e l d s t a t i o n was established on the Blue Glacier i n the summer of w i t h aid of the U.
A i r Force which air-dropped the heavy equipment. The f u l l program of meteorological and g l a c i o l o g i c a l observations began i n August and continued through August , providing records f o r an e n t i r e g l a c i e r budget year. A l l four men were i n the f i e l d f u l l - time during the summer months. The p r i n c i p a l observations were as follows: a. Complete r a d i a t i o n balance of snow surface throughout the year e. Penetration of winter cooling i n snow and f i r n f.
D e t a i l s of energy exchange over melting snow surface: i r a d i a t i o n balance i i water vapor exchange i l l sensible heat exchange i v surface and sub-surface ice melt 3.
LaChapelle, who dir e c t e d the f i e l d program and data reduc- t i o n. Data summaries and reports have been f i l e d w i t h the World Data Centers f o r Glaciology. Complete data records are on f i l e at the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington. A f t e r a prolonged period of net annual mass loss, the Blue Glacier ap- parently experienced a series of net mass accumulation years between and , though q u a n t i t a t i v e data are lacking.
This r e s u l t e d i n a cessation of the terminal r e t r e a t which had occurred f o r many years. The net mass budget was moderately nega- t i v e i n , and strongly negative i n , the year of int e n s i v e study.
The dominant f a c t o r i n the winter regime i s the development of a large l a t e n t en- ergy d e f i c i t through the accxnnulatton of ice mass i n the form of a deep w i n t e r snow cover. The same conditions of fog and storm impose a uniform temperature regime at the snow surface and on the adjacent a i r and atmospheric moisture.
Snowfalls close to the freezing p o i n t are common. On the Blue Glacier such a state p e r s i s t s s t e a d i l y from May or June u n t i l about mid-September. During mid-summer months a large high pressure area commonly dominates the North P a c i f i c , w i t h frequent long periods of clear weather i n western Washington State.
Under such circumstances the predominant source of energy f o r ice melt on the Blue Glacier i s solar r a d i a t i o n. Condensation and sensible heat t r a n s f e r from the a i r during f a l l storms then become the most important heat sources.
Detailed micrometeorological observations were obtained f o r a day period of almost continuously f a i r weather i n Results have been computed f o r t h i s period, taking eddy conduction of sensible heat as the r e s i d u a l i n the equation of energy ex- change.
Solar r a d i a t i o n furnished 69 per cent of the heat supply during t h i s period, while eddy conduction and condensation supplied 25 per cent and 6 per cent, respec- t i v e l y. Snow melt absorbed 64 per cent of t h i s heat, evaporation 8 per cent, and the balance, 28 per cent, was l o s t to r a d i a t i o n c o o l i n g.
January Major equipment included thermister cable and poten- tiometer; s t r a i n gages, v i s c o s i t y measuring apparatus, e n g l a c i a l i c e saiiq ling apparatus, heat-conductivity meter, inclinometer f o r deep hole studies, i c e deformation equipment, Nansen b o t t l e s w i t h reversing thermometer, current meter, desk c a l c u l a t o r s , and a trace portable seismograph w i t h spares.
Crary, GHO, was l a r g e l y responsible f o r s e l e c t i n g and ordering equipment. The s c i e n t i f i c program was de- veloped by the Glaciology Panel and c a r r i e d out under the general supervision of A.
S t a t i o n Glaciology. At L i t t l e America, Byrd, E l l s w o r t h , Amundsen-Scott South Pole , and Wilkes, snow stakes were set i n f o r determination of accumulation and the character of surface snow and ice was monitored and logged. G l a c i a l meteorological and surface heat exchange observations were made at L i t t l e America and Amundsen-Scott. At a l l s t a t i o n s , personnel took advantage of o p p o r t u n i t i e s to v i s i t surround- ing t e r r i t o r y , photograph g l a c i a l features, acquire rock samples, make observations of g l a c i e r development, movement and budget and make as complete a survey as possible f o r f u t u r e reference.
Observations were c a r r i e d out by oversnow traverses and by an a i r - borne seismic and g l a c i o l o g i c a l program. S h a l l o w - d r i l l i n g and p i t - study techniques supplied data on the rat e of annual accumulation, the rate and form of annual wastage; the s t r a t i g r a p h y and st r u c t u r e to depths of 8 m i n p i t s and 30 m w i t h manual auger; the thermal regimen to a depth of 30 m or more i f possible, and surface movement.
Seismic and gravimetric techniques provided determination of the ice thickness; information on the i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e as regards the depth of t r a n s i - t i o n from f i r n to i c e ; information on the ice shelves as to what p o r t i o n of the shelf I S a f l o a t and the depth of underlying water; information on the character of the sub- g l a c i a l topography underlying the inla n d ice and those portions of the ice shelves that are aground.
Meteorological observations were made during the traverses f o r r e l a t i o n to observations c a r r i e d out at the s t a t i o n s and to study the response of the shelf and co n t i n e n t a l i c e to meteorological conditions. Oct, 15, - Jan. Return along the same route to McMurdo Sound. Ulmer Sentinel Mts. The f a r t h e s t west was about km from McMurdo Sound, During an oversnow traverse party pene- t r a t e d t h i s area and reached a point somewhat f a r t h e r i n l a n d.
I n an airborne traverse made seven landings west of Byrd S t a t i o n between and W, long, c. James Zumberge, Un i v e r s i t y of Michigan. Troy L,? George Llano, For convenience, they are treated separately as Special Projects A, B, C, and D, f o l l o w i n g the numbered p r o j e c t s.
Crary, GHO, supervised the planning and during the two seasons i n A n t a r c t i c a supervised the scien- t i f i c work, i n s o f a r as f e a s i b l e and permitted by communications, as Deputy Chief S c i - e n t i s t , U.
Results and Bibliography. The bore holes were t o be instrumented f o r study of temperature p r o f i l e , closure, and i n c l i n a t i o n , to provide information on the i n t e r n a l dynamics of the i c e. I n a m hole was achieved, reaching i c e l a i d down, i t i s estimated, i n the f i f t e e n t h century. I n cores were obtained to about m and the procedure considered proved so tha t equipment was shipped to A n t a r c t i c a.
Operations at Byrd S t a t i o n. By January , cores had been obtained to m w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l l y complete core recovery. The equipment was dismantled and sledded back to L i t t l e America, the cores were sent i n deep freeze storage back to the CRBEL cold rooms f o r study.
The Byrd d r i l l hole was secured against subsequent accumulation by i n s t a l l i n g 20 fee t of 6 inch diameter casing above the surface and capping I t. I n October , d r i l l i n g began on the Ross Ice Shelf at L i t t l e America and proceeded to a depth of m, when a crack was encountered that l e t i n water which rose to m. The water was allowed t o freeze and the hole rebored to m.
I t was estimated t h a t the Ross Ice Shelf i s about m t h i c k i n that area. D r i l l i n g was f i n i s h e d i n December and the equipment was dismantled. I n the next year, the equipment was moved to McMurdo Sound, reconditioned and put i n t o storage f o r possible f u t u r e use.
Patenaude and J. SIPRE has published reports on the Byrd and L i t t l e America operation, i n - cluding the density, temperature, and deformation information. Continuous density measurements were made to a depth o f m where the density v a r i e d between 0. Spot d e n s i t i e s were taken at the lower depths. I n the upper section i t i s possible to determine annual accumulation of snow by v i s u a l s t r a t i g r a p h y and density measurements.
The p a r t i c u l a t e s consist of fragments o f or- ganic m a t e r i a l , angular mineral grains and micron sized magnetic spherules of possible cosmic o r i g i n. At the Katmai l e v e l , a d i s c r e t e m i n e r a l o g i c a l horizon was found composed of brown, angular mineral fragments. The times of explosive vulcanism, when volcanic ash was blown i n t o the stratosphere and s e t t l e d out throughout the world, may allow s t r a t i g r a p h i c c o r r e l a t i o n between the i c e caps of both hemispheres.
Selected ice cores representing samples down to m were returned to CRREL f o r studies of c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e. With rare exceptions, the q u a l i t y of the core was exc e l l e n t throughout, and i n several coring runs of the f i r s t m, foot lengths o f unbroken core were extracted from the foot core b a r r e l. The core recovery amounted to Ice cores were placed on a trough and viewed from above i n transmitted l i g h t from a l i g h t source placed under the trough.
This measurement and the nature of the layer whether coarse, f i n e , or i c y was c a r e f u l l y recorded. Successive sections o f core were then photographed. This combined s t r a t i - graphic -photographic analysis was commenced at S t r i p photographs were mounted i n order on cardboard sheets to give a running s t r a t i - graphic column over t h i s i n t e r v a l.
Density determinations on the i n d i v i d u a l layers were s t a r t e d at Three-inch core from a hand-augered hole d r i l l e d to Densities from segments were determined f o r the f i r s t 9 m and mean d e n s i t i e s f o r meter increments were cal c u l a t e d.
Densities were also deter- mined f o r spot samples selected at depths of m, m, m, m and m. Thick bands of ice indica- tive of a period of pronounced thaw were not found and, i n the absence of such diag- nostic features, a detailed density analysis of successive layers i n the stratigraphic sequence was carried out.
By this means, i t was possible to separate summer and win- ter snows and to determine the approximate annual accumulation, which was found to be about 15 cm water equivalent. Assuming an annual accumulation of 15 cm water equiva- lent, the ice at meters i s estimated to be years old. From the accurate determination of the depth-density p r o f i l e to the bottom of the d r i l l hole, three mechanisms of densification were ide n t i f i e d : a m region.
Sintering and packing of rounded polycrystalline grains were the primary mechanism. The rate of densification decreased exponentially from the surface to 10 m, where the density was 0. The rate of densification was linear with depth; at 65 m the f i r n - i c e transition density of 0.
Pore-space elimination and ultimate development of equidimensional polycrystalline texture for- mation of unicrystaller grains of polygonal outline was the mechanism m t h i s region. Below 65 m, the rate of densification decreased ex- ponentially as a function of the compression of entrapped a i r bubbles.
At m, the bubble pressures were approximately 25 atmospheres. The mean cross-sectional area of crystals increased linearly with depth below 65 m. Detailed petrofabric studies revealed no patterns of preferred orientation at any depth. In December , measurements were made i n the Byrd bore hole: i i Temperatures.
The same temperature recording equipment was used i n the d r i l l hole at Byrd Station as was used at L i t t l e America.
Steel casing extends down the hole 35 m and has apparently influenced surrounding snow temperatures down to at least 46 m. No corrections have been made on the existing data, but pre- liminary examination indicates that temperatures are within 0. Measurements on a t h i r d occasion show that the temperature has stabilized. The diameter of the d r i l l hole was measured every Resistance was measured with the same Wheatstone bridge and n u l l Indicator used for measuring temperatures.
Closure of the hole i s shown by Figure 2. Measure- ments were repeated wherever points appeared to depart greatly from the mean curve. Total closure from the top m of the casing was approximately 2. Thus far, no measurable in c l i n a t i o n has been observed. The f i r s t 4-inch diam. Although no saline ice was found i n the bottom core, proximity to the bottom of the shelf was evident when salt water seeped into the hole up to the Since no saline ice was found, i t i s possible that fresh ice continues to the ice-water interface which, from existing seismic information and temperature D r i l l hole closure with depth at Byrd Station.
This seems to indicate that the ice at the bottom i s melting rather than i n a stationary state or i n the process of forming new sea ice.
Detailed stratigraphic studies have been completed to a depth of 39 m. To f a c i l i t a t e glaciological studies i n the upper 3 - 4 m of snow and f i r n , three shallow pits were excavated some distance from the L i t t l e America V camp site.
Detailed studies of the p i t walls were made i n order to supplement data from the mechanically d r i l l e d and hand-augered cores. As a result, a complete stratigraphic p r o f i l e , m addition to the depth-density p r o f i l e , was obtained for the Ross Ice Shelf i n the v i c i n i t y of L i t t l e America V. Summer snow deposits appeared as coarse-grained layers and frequently were associated with icy crusts, ice layers and glands.
Winter deposits were finer - grained, more homogenous, and lacked the "soaked" appearance of summer accumulation. Periods of two or three consecutive years through the stratigraphic sequence showed intense ice formation. These periods appear to have occurred at more or less regular intervals which were approximately 10 to 12 years apart. Though ice crusts and ice lenses persist to greater depths, visual annual stratigraphic increments become ob- scure below 50 m.
Layers of foreign material were observed at Microscopic examination of the f i r s t layer revealed aggregates of glassy, markedly angular material i d e n t i f i e d tentatively as volcanic ash. The second and t h i r d layers have not been examined microscopically but w i l l be studied i n d e t a i l at CRREL. Approximately density measurements were made in the f i e l d. Average length of core for density determination was 12 to 15 cm. Av- erage densities for meter increments show a steepening of the depth-density curve be- tween The depth-density p r o f i l e was accurately determined to the bottom of the d r i l l hole.
A density anomaly was found between 20 and 40 meters, which was i n agree- ment with stratigraphic data. There i s evidence to suggest that accumulation i n this region of anomalous density occurred at lower temperatures than now exist, or perhaps reflects some unique condition of the o r i g i n a l site of accumulation. To obtain some estimate of the annual precipitation of L i t t l e America V, several sections of ice core were d r i l l e d out by hand auger from beneath the floor of the glaciological laboratory and water equivalents calculated.
These results are i n - tended to give only a general indication of the annual precipitation, but i t would ap- pear from the preliminary studies that- a 22 cm of water i s a f a i r average value, and b snow now 18 m below the surface was o r i g i n a l l y deposited on the Ross Ice Shelf about 40 years ago. Assuming that the ice shelf i n the v i c i n i t y of the d r i l l site i s composed entirely of depositional strata melting at the bottom having eliminated the original basement of the shelf , and assuming a constant annual accumulation of 22 cm of water, then i t may be said that L i t t l e America V rests upon approximately years of accumulated snow.
Eight thin sections of the core from 62 m to m have been examined on the Rigsby Universal Stage. Metamorphism of ice below the f i r n - i c e transition 55 meters at L i t t l e America V proved to be more complex than at Byrd Station. Strained crystals were very much m evidence and strongly developed fabric orientations, observed below 90 meters, probably ref l e c t considerable deformation of the shelf ice. In the region 90 - meters, a very marked Imeation of elongated bubbles was apparent.
There was also evidence of dimensional orientation of crystals. Fabric patterns were observed to take the form of several closely grouped maxima of c-axes perpendicular to both the dimensional orientation of the crystals and bubble Below meters, the ice showed an interlocked texture somewhat analagous to a three-dimensional jigsaw puzzle, the fabric pattern reduced to a single maximum of c-axes and the bubble lineations disappeared.
I t i s hoped that the detailed examination of the deep cores from L i t t l e America V w i l l add considerably to knowledge of the structure, or i g i n , and glaciological history of the Ross Ice Shelf. The earlier dates below Temperature measurements were made i n the bottom of the deep d r i l l hole as i t was cored, and recorded to 0.
The thermometer was calibrated by the Na- tional Bureau of Standards and used to calibrate the thermistors before and after measuring temperatures In the hole. Re- sistance was measured with a Leeds and Northrup Cat. Null Detector. The diameter of the hole at L i t t l e America V was measured at the The mean of three measurements recorded was 5. No attempt was made to make measurements of inclination.
Bader: "Deep D r i l l i n g i n Greenland. Bender, A. Gow: "Deep D r i l l i n g I n Antarctica. Patenaude, E. Marshall, A. Ragle, B.
Hansen, A. Gow, R. This project at the U. Through CRREL, special k i t s of glaciological equipment were procured and ship- ped to the antarctic stations. Through many years of experimentation and f i e l d observations, stan- dard glaciological equipment ice d r i l l s , augers, thermometers, snow samplers for den- si t y determination, rammsondes, etc. I n addition, items of a more specialized nature were supplied, such as two petrographic microscopes with uni- versal stages, two large universal stages, and tubes for packing ice and snow cores.
The procurement was under the supervision of Henri Bader. Project 4. This project, administered by the Arctic I n s t i t u t e of North America AIM provided for a small staff headquarters to plan the operational and s c i e n t i f i c aspects of the antarctic program, and parts of the arctic program.
The GHO provided the focal point for the detailed planning of the antarctic program. Station and t r a i l equipment were discussed with suppliers and other scientists who had experience i n i t s use. Requirements were developed for dis- cussion with Task Force 43 US Navy representatives for l o g i s t i c support for pre- season supplies and during-the-season resupply.
Various university groups were con- tacted to develop interest i n supplying personnel and i n a few cases undertaking specialized antarctic research projects. The s c i e n t i f i c program was developed by the Glaciology Panel and carried out under the supervision of GHO. Much of the same ac- t i v i t y pertained also to the arctic program although i n that instance there were a l - ready m existence several research groups working i n the Arctic.
Logistic support for remote arctic locations was planned and some work was also directed to the stan- dardization of data reporting for various types of observations. Finally, the pro- curement of supplies and equipment, spare parts, emergency parts, etc. Crary on leave from GRD who was responsible for the antarctic planning and R. Hubley Univ.
This project at Ohio State University, provided for the reduction and limited publication of glaciological data and incidental geological observations gathered i n the Antarctic at station sites during , , and early as well as on oversnow traverses during the summers of and This would i n - clude the reduction and drawing of profiles for a l l traverse and station snow pi t s temperature, density, ranmisonde, s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , hardness and from station deep pit s temperature, density, s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , hardness, and crystal structure.
This included many hand cores. Special groups of shallow p i t s and sastrugi observations were studied. Some rammsonde figures and others were reduced i n the f i e l d ; a l l would be completed and presented by data and graph. Microclimatological data taken at certain selected stations have been reduced un- der the auspices of this project and reported where taken. Temperature profiles into the snow and ice, surface wind velocities, humidity, and water content of snow are included. In addition to the operations at Ohio State, four sub-projects were arranged for the reduction of data from three special studies: A.
James H. Zumberge B. Geological Survey and University of Alaska, Dr. Troy L. Herfried Hoinkes D. Antarctic Biology, George Llano For details of these special projects, see end of this chapter. Station and Traverse Glaciology. Ohio State University. F a c i l i t i e s were pro- vided at f i r s t by the Department of Geology and now at the OSU I n s t i t u t e of Polar Studies for the glaciologists returned from Antarctica.
Here, the f i e l d logs and notes were used to prepare i n a systematized manner various glaciological data. A comprehensive report series was issued by the OSU project containing data tabulations, maps, and appro- priate text see section 6. Special Projects. Data reduction for these sub-projects was carried out at the respective i n s t i t u t i o n s and reports from B and C have been included i n the OSU series described above. This project was supervised by R.
Goldthwait, OSU, with the aid of R. Cameron, a large number of scientists were responsible for carrying out the var- ious parts of the work see Bibliography. A l l data have been processed and tabulated m form specified by the CSAGI or otherwise agreed upon, and were submitted to the data centers.
I t i s not possible within the scope of this document to summarize sat- i s f a c t o r i l y a l l of the work covered by this project.
The extensive bibliography sec- tion 6 conveys an idea of the breadth of the s c i e n t i f i c work. Hoinkes, Radiation Studies at L i t t l e America, i n preparation. Cameron, S. Goldich, and J. Stockholnx Contributions i n Geology, Vol. VI:1 6 pp. Neuberg, et a l : "The Filchner Ice Shelf. This project at the American Geographical Society provided for the preparation of photogrammetric maps, on large scales, of selected small glaciers.
The maps would form a permanent record of the condition of these glaciers so that at a future date they could be resurveyed and comparisons made. This procedure, i f car- ried over a sufficient time, would give the history of wastage and accumulation and the pattern of variation would provide the basis for more satisfactory and accurate interpretation of the response of these glaciers to meteorological and other factors.
Field of AGS made the i n i t i a l choice as a guide for glaciers to be mapped, the f i n a l decision being made i n the f i e l d. As a basis of selection, small valley glaciers from 5 to 8 kilometers i n length with simple unbranched systems were chosen.
Another c r i t e r i o n was that the glaciers be widely separated and repre- sentative of different climatic environments. Special e f f o r t s were made by the Air Photo Mission of the U.
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